Posted 25 June 2001  [RCT]

 

Submarine Tailings Disposal (STD) of Gold Mining Activities:

Impacts on Marine Organisms and Human Health

 

Markus T. Lasut^1* & Veronica A. Kumurur^2*

 

¹ Toxicology & Marine Pharmaceutics Laboratory, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science,

Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, Indonesia

² Architecture Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, Indonesia

^* Centre for Environmental Studies & Natural Resources (CESNR), Research Institution,

Sam Ratulangi University, Manado, Indonesia

 

 

ABSTRACT

 

Application of STD (submarine tailings disposal) system is still controversy due to it drives mine tailings to have potential impacts to coastal and marine environment. The impacts of the tailings to marine organisms and human health are reviewed in this paper based on STD system applied by Newmont Minahasa Raya (PT. NMR) in Buyat Bay, North Sulawesi, Indonesia. The discharged tailings consist of suspended particles, detoxified heavy metals and cyanide residues. Potential impacts of tailings are in physical, biological and chemical aspects, i.e. sedimentation, heavy metals and cyanides pollution, and further to human health (contaminated by heavy metals from food consumption). Major negative effects are potentially established, i.e. decreasing coastal biodiversity and heavy metal contamination of marine fish and human health.

 

Keywords: STD, heavy metals, mercury, arsenic, sedimentation, Buyat Bay, North Sulawesi, Indonesia, and gold mine.

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

STD (submarine tailings disposal) was firstly applied in 1971 by the Island Copper Mine (ICM) Company, Canada, where the basics of the STD was designed and developed for coastal mines (Ellis et al. 1995). Until now, the application is used by other mines as the same system as in ICM including Newmont Minahasa Raya (PT. NMR) and Newmont Nusa Tenggara (NTT) in Indonesia. There is considerable controversy surrounding the application of the STD in some countries. This occurs since the system is still argued whether it is save to be applied in wide broad area over the world or not, and some environmental issues arise from STD-applying country, including Indonesia.

There are three practical impacts, which have consistently occurred at marine mining sites and will probably occur to a limited extent at new sites even when controlling action is taken. The impacts are water turbidity, seabed smothering and trace metal bioaccumulation (Ellis 1988). They encompass three category impacts including physical, biological and chemical aspects. This review highlights, in general, potential impacts of STD application on marine organisms and human health in different area with Island Copper Mine; it was based on PT. NMR-applying STD experience.

 

 

WASTES OF GOLD MINE

Wastes

 

There are two main classes of waste relate to gold mining activities. First, overburden and waste rock that is removed in order to reach the ore. Second, mine tailings that are left over after the mineral concentrate has been extracted in the milling process (Fergusson & Erickson 1988; Anonymous 2000x). The tailings can be in forms of gas, liquid and solid and they consist of toxic substances as heavy metals with relatively high in concentration (Ginting 1999). Type of metals found in the tailings is depended on sulphite minerals associated with the gold (Ginting 1999; Lasut 2001). For instance, Hg and As are found in tailings from PT. NMR (Anonymous 1994; 1998; 1999a). In period of October 1 to December 31, 1998, ±1,446,500 tons of overburden and waste rock has been discharged, and ±349,000 m³ that consisted of ±192,000 tons of solid particles of tailings has been disposed by PT. NMR to marine environment of Buyat Bay (Anonymous 1998).

 

Mercury & Arsen

          Source of mercury (Hg) and Arsenic (As) found in the tailings comes from sulphite mineral associated with the gold. For instances, the mineral of Cinnabar as a source for Hg, and Realgar, Arsenopirit for As (Ginting 1999). Concentration those metals, Hg and As, has been measured in solid particles of sampled tailings of PT. NMR before operation, they were 6.2, 840 and 12ppm (Anonymous 1994). All heavy metals dissolved in tailings are disposed to the marine environment trough STD system after detoxification. The metals deposited as the particles are flocculated and deposited in marine seabed. Increasing concentration of Hg and As in water, sediment and marine organisms of Buyat Bay are reported by (Anonymous 1999a; b; Lasut & Kumurur 2001).

 

Cyanide

          Cyanide is very toxic. The form of cyanide in gold extraction is in ion (CN^-), free radical (CN), and cyanide acid (WAD). Type of cyanide used in extraction of gold is sodium cyanide (NaCN) in concentration of 200 ppm at the initial process and will decrease up to 120 ppm at the end (Anonymous 1994; Ginting 1999). Cyanide found in mine tailings comes from additional substance to extract gold. Anonymous (1999a & b) reported concentration of CN in Buyat Bay where STD is applied.

 

 

SUBMARINE TAILINGS DISPOSAL (STD)

 

Information of STD system is available in Ellis (1988), Mathis & Robertson (1993), Ellis et al. (1995a & b), Moore (2000x). Most of the information describe and explain as an example from Island Copper Mine, Canada, as the first mining company who applied the system. The basic design of the system consists of an on-land tailings slurry line leading to a de-aeration / seawater-mixing chamber, with a seawater intake line, and discharge to location and depth allowing gravity flow of a coherent density current to final sedimentation area (Ellis et al. 1995a).

The STD system is defined by means the discharge of mine mill tailings deep below the surface of the sea. The intent of the systems is to discharge tailing slurry as a coherent density (turbidity) current flowing by gravity to its eventual deposition area. The outfall must be sited where this can be achieved. Ellis et al. (1995a) has suggested some notes:

1.      It is important to make clear what STD does not involve. STD does not involve discharge of the tailings at so shallow a depth in the sea that the tailings are brought to the surface by wave action. Nor does it include disposal to a beach or to a river so that tailings reach the sea.

2.      STD system can generate environmental problems, or may be impractical, at particular sites. The drawbacks for the system in general terms will smother benthos (seabed organisms) and generate some water turbidity during mine operations. May take some years for natural situation to restore the seabed to a productive ecosystem.

3.      STD system can not be applied in certain case, i.e., coast remote (more than about 100 km), and/or no deep receiving area such as a fjord or adequate slope to depositional area.

PT. NMR uses STD to discharge 2000 tons per day of the tailing, 45-55% solid (<75 mm of silt), through a pipeline to an outfall at ±82 metres of depth (Anonymous 1994).

 

 

THE IMPACTS OF STD

 

The objective of STD is to discharge the tailings at a depth at the particular site so that they will not be upwelled to the surface where they will have an unacceptable adverse environmental impact, e.g. degrade fishery resources and biological production, impede navigation, and be visible (in a tourist area for example) (Ellis et al. 1995a). In addition, Ellis (1988) mentioned that STD can potentially contaminate or preclude marine fisheries, and affect tourism, recreation and public health. STD can drive impacts of tailings to biosphere. The impacts of the tailings can be categorised in physical, biological and chemical impacts. And further impact can be to human health since the marine environment as a source of human food consumption. Description of those impacts was reviewed based on PT. NMR experience deal with STD including their detoxification system.  The mining company uses vast amounts of cyanide to extract gold and discharge toxic substances including cyanide, mercury (Hg), arsenic (As) and Cadmium (Cd) into the sea. The company uses a water treatment plant (detoxification system) to reduce toxic and heavy metal contamination.

 

Detoxification System

          Several toxic substances (CN, As, Hg, Sb, Cu and Fe) found in the tailings of PT. NMR are detoxified before disposing to the sea. However, the detoxification system is unstable and unpredictable to reduce the substances. For example, this was observed in daily detoxification performance on October 1998. On date of 23, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 31, the Hg concentration was increased from 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.7, 0.3 and 0.9 ppb before process (detox feed) to 4.04, 4.22, 2.12, 4.42, 5.11 and 2.40 ppb after process (final tails), respectively. These were also observed on other dates of the daily process and on other detoxified metals (Anonymous 1998).

 

Physical Impact

          Physical impact of the tailings has reported by Anonymous (1999b), 1999b, 2000, Lasut & Kumurur (2001), Kumurur (2001). Fine particles of solid along with liquid form of the tailings will fate as a suspended solid particulate in water column. In marine environment, a suspended particulate can affect organisms, both directly and indirectly, leading to mortality and decreased yield of fish (Lasut & Kumurur 2001). Settled particles can smoother or abrade sessile organisms, and particles in water can decrease light penetration by absorption and scattering and thus limit photosynthesis and primary productivity. In addition, marine ecosystems adversely affected by suspended solids include coral reefs, mangrove, fish, seagrass, and other marine organisms (Deocadiz & Montano 1999).

          The tailings from PT. NMR are being designed to form volcano-mount shape at the outfall, which aim to avoid tailing distribution to other areas of seabed around the Buyat Bay. Distribution of tailings to wide area will give result in potential of the toxic substances (Hg, As, Pb and others) deposited in sediment release into water column. It causes the substances will be available to be taken up by marine organisms (C. Pelletier 1999, pers.com). The volcano-mount shape of tailings has been observed in 1998 with 9m high and 4-5^o of slopes (reduction of depth of tailings from ±82m to ±73m as pick of the mount). However, distribution of tailings was also observed in area of 18-20m depth and 1 km in distance from the tailing outfall (Anonymous 1998). The tailings had also been found at depth 64m (92437 N and 689224 E) closed to the outfall by Anonymous (1999) when they discussed about thermocline which was not occur at the area. This is the fact that the tailings are unpredictable when they enter the marine environment. In addition, total and rate sedimentation at coastal area in Buyat Bay in period of October to December 1998, they are 52.96-216.36 gram and 0.51-2.10 gram per day, respectively; while in other area (Kotabunan, several kilometres from Buyat Bay) are 3.06 gram and 0.03 gram per day (Anonymous 1998).

Increased water turbidity potentially can reduce primary biological production, and hence may reduce fishery yields (Ellis 1988). Fish can visually detect and swim away from turbid water thus avoiding direct deleterious effects (Deocadiz & Montano 1999). Alabaster and Lloyd (1984; cited in Deocadiz & Montano 1999) showed that injury and death appeared to be mainly due to gill clogging and increased susceptibility to disease. Continuous exposure for days to high sediment concentrations (>1,000 mg/L) are required to kill most species of adult fish.

Adverse effects of siltation from mine tailings on coral reefs have been observed by Corpus and Alino (1983; cited in Deocadiz & Montano 1999) in Philippines. Coral diversity was diminished along 7 km of coastline adjacent to Toledo City, Cebu (Central Philippines) and coral cover decreased by as much as 20-40% (Gomez et al. 1994; cited in Deocadiz & Montano 1999).

Fine sediments subject to resuspension may adversely affect suspension-feeding benthos in general (Rhoads and Young 1970; cited in Deocadiz & Montano 1999). Chansang (1988; cited in Deocadiz & Montano 1999) reported that in Ranong, Thailand, suspended solids from mining were alleged to cause high cockle mortality and reduction of the phytoplankton population.

 

Biological and Chemical Impact

There is three processes deal with a chemical substance in marine environment, i.e. bioconcentration, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification. Bioconcentration is a biological process of a chemical substance enters into the body of organisms via gills and epithelial tissues, and then it is accumulated. Bioaccumulation is a broad term that include bioconcentration and accumulation processes via food consumption. Biomagnification is a total process that include bioconcentration and bioaccumulation in which concentration of an accumulated substance increase as trophic level (Connell & Miller 1984; Rand & Petrocelli 1985). The biomagnification process occurs in a trophic level due to a biotransfer process where a chemical substance is transferred biologically from one trophic to the higher levels. The all processes are phenomena in the marine environment (Lasut & Lumingas).

The phenomenon of metals concentrated into the tissues of marine organisms was found related to the role of metal-binding proteins. The function of proteins is to bind many metal ions, these proteins are named as metallothioneins (MTs) (Noël-Lambot et al. 1978; Frankenne et al. 1980; Engel & Brouwer 1984; Bayne et al. 1985; Rand & Petrocelli 1985; Langston & Zhou 1987; Fowler et al. 1987; Le Gal 1988; Manahan 1991, 1992; Roesijadi 1992; Bebianno & Langston 1993; Carpene 1993; Lasut 1999). The metallothioneins are a group of specific non-enzyme proteins that are increasingly being demonstrated to play a central role in metal metabolism.

          Metallothioneins are described as cytoplasmic proteins and recognised as low molecular weight proteins (approx. 10,000 daltons); 6-7 kDa of unusual structures. It consists of 26-33% (one-third) cysteine without or low aromatic amino acids or histidine (Bayne et al. 1985; Rand & Petrocelli 1985; Fowler et al. 1987; Le Gal 1988; Manahan 1991, 1992; Roesijadi 1992; Carpene 1993). It is found that there are approximately 24 cystein residues per metallothionein molecule. Each three cysteine residues bind 1 metal ion with a resultant 8 metal ions bound to each metallothionein molecule; metallothionein appears always to occur in the saturated state (Noël-Lambot & Bouquegneau 1977; Noël-Lambot dkk. 1978; Edwards & Hassall 1980; Le Gal 1988; Engel & Brouwer 1989; Bebiano & Langston 1992a & b; Manahan 1991; 1992; Lacaze 1993). Consequences of the presence of cystein, metallothionein consists of a big number of thiol group (sulfhydryl, -SH). This group bound heavy metals, especially mercury, silver, zinc and tin.

          Metallothionein is apparently ubiquitous, having been described in mammals, fish, bivalves, zooplankton and phytoplankton. Metallothionein may exist to some level in most or all animal tissues since it has been found to occur in liver, kidney, gills, testes, intestine, muscle, plasma, erythrocyte, tissue cultured skin epithelial cells and urine. In mammals, metallothioneins appears to be concentrated in liver and kidney tissue, while in fish and bivalves high level of metallothionein are also found in gill tissue (Bayne et al. 1985).

          Natural tissue levels of metallothionein can be greatly increased (up to 40 times) by exposure of the organisms to various trace metals, namely mercury, cadmium, copper, zinc, silver, and tin. The induction of metallothionein may occur at the translation level (increased synthesis of protein from a mRNA) for low metal exposure, or at the transcriptional level (increased synthesis of mRNA) for higher metal exposures. The metallothionein binds the metal ions, so preventing them from exerting toxic effects through binding to enzymes or other sensitive sites. If, however, the rate of influx of metals into the cell exceeds the rate at which metallothionein can be synthesized, there may be a "spillover" of metals from metallothionein into the enzyme pool. Toxic effects can then be due to the displacement of essential metals from metalloenzymes (i.e. enzymes that require specific metal ions to be catalytically. In such enzymes the metal ion may serve as (1) the primary catalytic center; (2) a bridging group, to bind substrate and enzyme together; or (3) an agent stabilizing the conformation of the enzyme in its catalytically active form by non-essential metals. This displacement can change the conformational shape of the enzyme so that the substrate molecules no longer fit the binding sites in the enzymes, resulting in the loss of enzyme activity.

 

Impact to Human Health

 

Impact of tailings to human health is reported by Anonymous (2001). Since the mining tailings consist of toxic substances (Hg, As and Pb) from ore’s minerals, the impact to human health is predicted occur indirectly through food chain of marine organisms, fish and other biota as a human food source. Contamination and accumulation of the substances to human body are relatively difficult to observe because their symptom is always mix with other contaminants. Metal deposition in tissues is the result of high uptake/accumulation and low excretion processes in marine organisms. The toxic substances in the mine tailings are a main impact to human health.

 

Arsenic

          Arsenic exposure has long been associated with several different forms of human cancer, and so in 1976 it is classified as a “Group A” human carcinogen by U.S. EPA. Some studies cited in Marcus & Rispin (1988) suggested that toxicity of arsenic closely related to its chemical form. Inorganic salts and acids of arsenic occur predominantly in the tri-(III) and pentavalent (V) oxidation states. It is well known from acute exposure studies that trivalent arsenic is more toxic than pentavalent arsenic. At environmental levels, pentavalent arsenic (V) is rapidly converted to trivalent arsenic (III) in blood. These two forms can be readily interconverted in mammals. Trivalent and pentavalent arsenic salts also have different modes of toxic action. For example, arsenite (trivalent) is known to react with SH-groups (sulfuhydril-group) of proteins and enzymes while arsenate (pentavalent) may interfere with phosphorylation reactions due to its chemical similarity with phosphate.

The acute toxicity of dimethylarsinic acid and its salts for fish are moderate to low. Biological transforamtions in soil result in the production of more toxic arsenic compounds, such as the volatile dimethyl- and trimethylarsines, as well as inorganic arsenic. In a model ecosystem, algae and daphnia accumulated these compounds (WHO 1992).

Marcus & Rispin (1988) and WHO (1992) suggested that arsenic in seafood is predominantly organic forms as trimethylated form, which, in general, are less toxic than inorganic derivatives. Trimethyl arsenic in fish also occurs in other chemical structures, such as arsenocholine. Although most of the trimethyl arsenic compounds in prawns were excreted unchanged, 3 to 5% is changed to mono- and dimethylated forms or to inorganic arsenic. Methylated arsenic compounds are rapidly and extensively taken up by mammals, including humans. They are eliminated, mainly in the urine, within a period of 2-4 days (WHO 1992). Thus, although most of the organic arsenic in seafood is excreted rapidly and unchanged, some of it may be retained in the soft tissues, undergo biotransformation, and be available biologically (Yamauchi & Yamamura 1984 in Marcus & Rispin 1988).

Valentine et al. (1979) cited in Marcus & Rispin (1988) measured arsenic level in human blood, urine, and hair in five United States communities with arsenic concentrations in drinking water ranging from 6 to 393 mg/L. The results showed that arsenic concentrations increased in urine and hair samples in proportion to increases in concentrations in drinking water. However, this trend was not reflected in blood until drinking water concentrations exceeded 100 mg/L.

          The highest tissue concentration of arsenic in humans is generally found in skin, hair, and nails (Liebscher & Smith 1968 in Marcus & Rispin 1988). Accumulation in blood has been reported by Anonymous (2001).

 

Mercury

Elevated mercury concentrations in coastal waters and sediments may be lethal to intolerant species, thereby having an effect on the diversity and the trophic structure of the ecosystem. Furthermore, accumulation of metals in more tolerant species may cause adverse physiological hereby reducing their general fitness (Anonymous 1996).

 

 

 

Some studies have been used human blood to determine concentration of Hg (Wheatley & Paradis 1995, Girard & Dumont 1995, Fleming et al. 1995, Akagi et al. 1995, and Barbosa et al. 1995). Accumulation of Hg in tissues of human body is varying in each tissue. Fleming et al. (1995) suggested that the relationship between hair and blood MeHg levels has been well established; blood MeHg levels provide recent exposure indices (several weeks) while hair MeHg levels reflect historic exposures relative to the length of the hair (i.e. months to years). Akagi et al. (1995) conclude from their investigation on speciation of mercury in human hair, blood and urine that a highly significant correlation (correlation coefficient of 0.97) between Hg in hair and blood, and obtained hair Hg – blood Hg ratio is 242 : 1.

Wheatley & Paradis (1995) in designing a research of exposure of Canadian aboriginal peoples to methylmercury, referred current WHO environmental health criteria (published in 1976) that to blood levels below 20 ppb (or 6 ppm in hair) as being in the acceptable range and levels greater than 100 ppb in blood (30 ppm in hair) as “at risk”.

 

 

STD as a Source of Contamination

 

Source of toxic substance contamination in Buyat Bay where the STD system of PT. NMR is being applied, is still argued whether the contamination is caused by the tailings through the system or from other sources. Anonymous (1999) reported concentration of Hg, As and CN-tot (total Cyanide) in seawater at deepest sampling depth at 9 sites (Figure 1). The highest concentration of Hg was found at the tailing outfall (34 ppb) and the concentrations form a gradient where location at tailings outfall is a centre (1). The concentration of As and CN-tot is relatively form a gradient as same as Hg. By using sediment samples, concentration of Hg and As at 6 sites at Buyat Bay  (Figure 2) shows a gradient where the site of tailing outfall has the highest concentration for both metals (6.0 ppb and 645 ppm, respectively) (Anonymous 1999).

 

 

Conclusion & OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

 

The impacts of STD system applied by gold mining activities (example PT. NMR) to marine organisms and human health encompass to physical, biological and chemical impacts. And further impact can be to human health since the marine environment as a source of human food consumption. Unstable and unpredictable detoxification system combined with unfitted and danger system of STD can caused contamination of heavy metals (Hg and As) and CN to marine organisms and human health. The physical impact, includes increasing suspended solid and water turbidity, alter marine ecosystem. The biological and chemical impact showed bioconcentration, bioaccumulation and biomagnification phenomena of heavy metals in marine food chain and metallothionein induction as the main process of contamination to marine organisms and human health. The impact to human health due to toxic substances (Hg, As and CN) found in mine tailings caused human cancer for As and Hg. STD of PT NMR is the main point as a source of contamination in Buyat Bay.

Generalising the used of STD in a broad area from sub-tropical (the place where the first STD was designed) to tropical areas should consider differences in some marine environmental conditions between both areas and their implication for marine pollution prediction and monitoring. The conditions are salinity, temperature, physiological, and ecological sense that make tropical organisms more or less vulnerable to pollutants (Saenger & Holmes 1992).

 

 

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